Always Something
Worth Fighting For

Warfare in the Eighteenth Century
Black, Jeremy
(London. Cassell. 2002.) 20-219

By Tony Nicholas

June 22, 2009

Warfare changed during the eighteenth century for most of Europe. Although many major European powers were already accustomed to and proficient at war, they fought largely on their own continent. This would change during the eighteenth century. Compared to the century prior, which witnessed the Thirty Years War and other fighting that almost consumed the entire century, the first half of the eighteenth century had remained for the most part quiet, but 1756 would see this relatively quiet time come to an end.

While most of the fighting that took place in the seventeenth century was for position in Europe, early wars of the eighteenth century were aimed at keeping out Turkish invaders. The Seven Years War — or, as it was known in America, the French and Indian War — brought two of the world’s largest empires, England and France, fighting half way around the world. Lasting until 1763, the Seven Years War was what many historians consider to be a precursor to perhaps the greatest war in history, the American Revolution. The American Revolution marked the first time that an empire’s colony would challenge and fight for independence from a European power.

Jeremy Black is a British historian and professor of history at the University of Exeter. He is considered by many to be the foremost expert in European military history. Dr. Black is the author of over ninety books, most of which are on eighteenth century British politics and international relations. Black shows that there are three major themes to warfare in the eighteenth century. The first is variety. This variety was not just the diversity of military practices and traditions, but rather how different military practices and systems were appropriate in different parts of the world. Second is that there was no sense of technological triumph. During the eighteenth century there were no great technological advances that led to military achievement. The third theme is of diversity that relates to the strategies, tactics, and organization that can be followed around the world.

Warfare in the Eighteenth Century begins in 1717 with a Dsungar force invading Tibet. This was the last of the Mongol tribes left in central Asia. The military techniques that were used were as removed from Europe as the land in which they were fighting. Dsungar’s invasion proved that the old patterns and techniques of military behavior were still valid. Experienced cavalry stormed across the battlefield, forcing a general musket volley followed by fighting with swords and knives. Cavalry was a crucial part of war in Asia, whereas the role of cavalry was not as vital in western Europe or in European operations in the rest of the world. The effects of cavalry was best felt on the wide-open plains of Asia, but was poorly suited for the mountianous terrain of Europe or for transport at sea. In European countries infantry was dominant, due to the difficulty in the transportation of horses needed to engage in an effective cavalry campaign.

Wars between Europe and Asia demonstrate the variety of military systems and tactics of the period. China had the largest army in the world and was able to cover vast terrain; however, they lacked the support of a large navy and the use of artillery. As the Europeans discovered, terrain would at times play more of a role in battles than weapons. The Ottoman Turks largely lacked the weapons of the European armies, often fighting with bone or stone tipped arrows and swords, yet were able to use the harsh terrain of Serbia to their advantage. The Turks would often fight wars of raids and destruction and of ambushes, not wars of major battles. The Ottoman cavalry was able to win several key battles over the Russian army led by Peter the Great because of their manoeuverability.

Disease, famine, and logistical problems greatly limited an army’s success. Despite being greatly outnumbered in south Asia, the British were able to gain prominence in India and south Asia. Successes and failures allowed the British the ability to develop tactics and strategies dependent upon the forces in which they were fighting. The British found it easier to confront opponents that relied on infantry than those who relied on light cavalry.

Early in the eighteenth century France was the European power that expanded the most in North America. While the British remained primarily on the Atlantic coast, the French gained their power by gaining access to the rivers of the interior, espically the Mississippi River. The Mississippi River gave the French a major trade route between Quebec and New Orleans. Much of the French expansion was accomplished without the use of force, as they sought trade with most of the native tribes that they encountered. The British colonies, on the other hand, had to overcome at times heavy native resistance. One of the most formidable foes proved to be the Cherokee, who inhabited North Carolina.

European powers found it easier when operating across the ocean to fight each other than non-Europeans. This was largely based on the dependence on colonial empire’s bases and the maritime link with Europe. The major colonial conflicts were between Britian and France. During engagements between similar countries with roughly the same weapons and methods of fighting, the major difference was in the size of the armies.

The American war was the first example of a transcontiental conflict between a European colonial power and its subjects. The British were up against a continental opponent, and after they lost their naval dominance when France entered the war on America’s side, seemed destined for defeat. The struggle broadened when the Spanish and the Dutch entered the war on the French and colonial side. Although the American response to war was initially to adopt the line formations of the musketeers of European warfare, the native tactics learned during the Seven Years War began to dominate. Major General Charles Lee advocated the use of “irregular” warfare, espically the avoidance of position warfare. Lee, a former British regular officer, had witnessed the strengths and weaknesses of the British army and trained his troops to exploit these weaknesses. The colonists took full advantage of their knowledge of the terrain, espically the swamps. French intervention in the war did not bring about an automatic British defeat; it did, however, cause the British navy to abandon several ports in Philadelphia and turn its attention on key ports in the south, espically Charleston, Savannah, and New Orleans.

The single greatest asset that European countries possessed was their navies. European countries had at their disposial the largest, best armored, and up to date navies in the world. There were other naval powers, especially those in the Arabian Sea, but none possessed the long range capabilities of the Europeans. The naval strenghts of north African powers consisted mostly of privateering forces that were better suited for raiding and not military engagements. European navies began developing specialized warships in the mid-seventeenth ccentury and by the eighteenth century now had highly developed battleships as opposed to armed merchant ships. Fire-power was enhanced by replacing bronze cannons with cast-iron guns which could fire heavier shot over longer distances. New armament along with the addition of extra sails and changes in hull design meant that naval warfare could now be decisive factors in battles.

The eighteenth century prior to the French Revolution is commonly regarded as a period of military conservatism. Conflict was a central theme in European history, especially during this period. Wars were common, often long-lasting, and frequently involved heavy casualties. The battles and wars of the eighteenth century were far from inconsequential; they changed the politics of the age. New weapons and tactics were developed and changed the way wars of the future would be conducted.

America was settled, as was the struggle between Britain and France in India and south Asia. Armies were responsible for the maintenance of order and the defense of authority around the world. Prior to the eighteenth century, European powers concentrated on war with each other in Europe first, and secondly the defense of their colonial possessions. Europe became the major innovator of weapons and methods, mostly because of a new global theatre. The gains and conquests of the eighteenth century proved one thing: there is always something worth fighting for.

This book review was witten by Tony Nicholas, as a requirement for the course Early Modern Europe and was submitted to Dr. Ron Fritze, Athens State University.