French
Peasant
Revolts.

Outbursts of
Collective Rage
Send a Message.

By Melissa Moore

History of Peasant Revolts:
The Social Origins of Rebellion in Early Modern France.
By Yves-Marie Berce.
Amanda Whitmore, trans.
(Cornell University Press, 1986).

Translated from the French, Histoire des Croquants, Berces' work concerning the history of the peasant revolts in France during the sixteenth and seventeenth century, is an expansive composition, fully detailed and thoroughly researched. Covering all aspects within the scope of this topic, Berces' opus (published in 1974) is considered a major addition to the study of comparative social history. Using historical material, Berce depicts the customary lives of all social classes involved during outbursts of "collective rage" found within southwestern France during this time. By showing the common patterns and characteristics of these rebellions and the solidarity of the communities involved, Berces' supplement argues that rebellions were the population's way of exercising and negotiating with the absolutist government of the French monarchy. This theory contradicts earlier ideas that rebellions were the result of automatic reactions to economic woes or "pre-political" violence.

Dividing the work into five sections, Berce begins by looking at the communes in France during the seventeenth century. Stating that during this time, the term commune was devoid of any "collective vassalage" found in medieval times, Berce describes these as local communities, both rural and city. Section one in this work deals with election of authorities and communal emblems such as the consular livery and town bells. Berce not only deals with the significance of these institutions, but the immense psychological importance these institutions had on the populace. The description continues with an explanation of the sources of communal power in the areas of politics, judicial, fiscal and security affairs. For example, the communes' right to self-defense was "given tangible expression in the town wall."(p 9) This section describes how government agencies and officers eventually usurped these powers. This combined with the increase in taxes and new prohibitions forbidding freedoms once enjoyed by rural communities, Berce postulates, set the stage for the rebellions in the sixteenth and seventeenth century. One example of these prohibitions, detailed by Berce, imposed restrictions on the grazing of sheep and the collection of firewood.(p 18)

Furthering this discussion, Berce recounts the "excitements of the people." These consist of fairs, religious festivals, taverns and celebrations for the royal family. Berce states that the importance of these rituals to the populace is indicative of the period. This era, Berce states, is characterized by intense social activity and a shared collective consciousness, which is also conducive to social violence. Berce uses many examples to show that the "slightest pretext" could result in group violence. For example, Berce recounts versions of a rebellion that started over a rumor concerning the salt tax.(p 41)

Berce states that the communes, who rioted collectively, also were punished collectively with fines or destruction of certain public works, such as the town wall.(p 44) Berce finishes this section with a description of the "urban ecology" of the communes, detailing their districts and quarters. He then considers the people who lived under the radar of the communes, called "the people of the high roads", and how they were affected by the structure of the communes. Stating that the seventeenth century was the "age of walled cities", Berce states that these communes were deeply rooted in the soil and affected all of society.

In the second section of this expansive work, Berce focuses on the uprisings of the Croquants between 1593 and 1595, led by a popular army in the areas of Limousin and Perigord in France. Berce states that this rising in the countryside was not wholly popular with those in the rest of society, though it is often theorized that a broad consensus was found among the population in France. Berce also considers the raising of the Tard Avises and their connection to the assemblies of the Third Estate, while also discussing their leaders and methods of expressing discontent. One example, is the tax issue discussed in this section that deals with funds collected "by force of arms" and how this "party of the countryside" dealt with this practice: rebellion being the foremost method.

Berce concludes this section by discussing the end of the assemblies and the connection between the peasant uprising and the civil wars of the sixteenth century. The author states that this insurrection served as the prototype for all of the revolts that followed. However, one characteristic is listed to separate this rebellion in France during 1594 and its followers; namely, the first Croquants were "uncompromisingly hostile to towns." Berce sees this distinction as the beginnings of popular reaction to the rise of the "urban bourgeoisie." "It (the cities) has snatched away their rustic liberties, encroached on their lands and shattered the old cohesion of their small communities."(p 106)

The third section of this book is preceded with a short historical narrative to set the scene for Berce's discussion of the rising of the communes of Perigord in 1637-1641, the largest peasant revolt in French history. Berce states that this rebellion began over unrest concerning special taxes which paid for army rations. This, along with tax increases, caused the flare-up of these revolts in Perigord. Berce takes much care in detailing the communes involved and their aims in resistance to the crown. For example, the commune in Quercy was interested in the abolition of a new tax system called the election. This resulted in the destruction of property of three local businessmen who had "taken advantage of the new system to purchase offices."(p 139)

The number of peasants in the rebellion, according to Berce, numbered between 5,000 and 10,000 and their victims were excisemen involved in the collection of the election. Berce also gives attention to the excellent captains of the Croquant resistance, such as Pierre Greletty and Marquis d' Aubeterre. By considering these captains in a chronological order, Berce provides an expansive look at the Croquant uprisings.

Section four of Berces' work deals with the different types of riots that were present in the seventeenth century, taking care to consider their causes and purpose. Berce states that these riots conform to patterns and repeated features, which he details thoroughly. He states that four causes have been found for the riots of the seventeenth century: the price of bread, quartering of troops, collection of taxes, and the "farming out" of taxes.(p 169) Berce also enumerates types of violence these riots caused and the leaders involved, further showing the authors' innate ability at using historical sources, such as personal letters dating to the period in question. Berce states that these riots indicate that an "old tradition of resistance" was alive and well, despite tapering off as time progressed.

Concluding this section, Berce states that though the bread riots were the least dangerous, they were the riots with staying power during the seventeenth century. Riots concerning the quartering of troops and those provoked by tax farmers and collectors were shorter due to the governments' use of force to "secure the consent of the populace to its taxes."(p 242)

The final section of this text deals with the "rebel imagination" found in southwestern France. Berce logically provides an explanation of documents that influenced the popular conscious on topics such as the denunciation of taxes. This further aids the reader in understanding the mindset of the peasants who took part in the riots of the seventeenth century. Berce uses the works of prominent essayists and historians of the seventeenth century to show the populaces' belief in the evils of taxes. This also includes an interesting discussion of the "mythology of tax resistance." This includes popular belief that the king was innocent of raising taxes and was being duped by his financial ministers. "They (these mythologies) were reassuring when they depicted the king as being the victim of deceit and robbery and thereby affirmed the guiltlessness of the monarchy on which the state was based."(p 248) These myths also promised a remission of taxes, another uplifting characteristic. Berce states that these stories worked to justify rebellion and urge the populace to action. Berce also considers less optimistic stories that deal with imaginary taxes rumored to be in the future of the population.

To complete this work, Berce describes myths concerning the validity of rebellion, excisemen, and the views of contemporaries who witnessed the rebellions in France. In this section, contemporaries are seen as having viewed these rebellions in an indifferent manner. Using accounts from the press, such as the Gazette de France, Berce shows how many rebellions were not considered worthy enough of coverage. This theme is repeated with the discussion of historiographical views of the Croquants as being trivial to the study of French history.

Berce lists major similarities between the uprisings discussed in this book. For example, these rebellions broke out in springtime and slowed in August to allow for the harvest in the fall. This among other patterns listed, Berce states, are important to consider because these repetitive patterns can be used to discover a formula for rebellion. This data is also used by Berce to locate "hotbeds of insurrection," which he attributes to the English occupation of the area in the Middle Ages.

This expansive work is deeply detailed, as Berce focuses on the peasant revolts within southwestern France in the seventeenth century. If there are any aspects of the peasant rebellions left out of Berce's work, I can not conjecture what it may be. In addition, the sectioning of the book is conducive to the reader in providing an outline to follow. This work is extremely well researched, though I expected more footnotes throughout the reading. Also disappointing was the lack of any substantial bibliography included in the text, though this is not meant to subtract from the scholarship of the book. There is no question about the research that went into this work, which is clear. Nonetheless, students of French history could benefit from a listing of the sources used.

Berce fundamentally takes two rebellions, and describes them in order to reconstruct the motivations, character and effects of peasant revolts in general. By using this method, Berce describes revolts as reactionary movements of community solidarity, while at times becoming redundant on the themes involved. However, the superfluity of the text is due to Berces' sound argument concerning the themes of the peasant revolts.